CONTEXTE ET CADRE DE L'ANALYSE Le modèle de revenus des banques commerciales repose sur deux piliers structurels : le revenu net d'int rêts (NII) — diff rentiel entre taux prêteurs et d posants — et les revenus hors int rêts (Non-Interest Revenue, NIR), qui agrègent commissions, frais de services, gains sur change, revenus de trading et autres charges factur es à la clientèle. Cette analyse porte exclusivement sur le second pilier. Dans les march s mergents d'Afrique et du Moyen-Orient, les frais et commissions bancaires constituent à la fois un levier de rentabilit pour les tablissements et un facteur de friction pour l'accès aux services financiers des m nages. Le Maroc, en tant qu' conomie mergente de r f rence en Afrique du Nord et sub-saharienne, offre un terrain d'analyse particulièrement pertinent. 1.1 P rimètre de comparaison L'analyse retient comme pays comparables ceux pr sentant des similarit s structurelles avec le Maroc selon les critères suivants : Revenu interm diaire inf rieur ou sup rieur (classification Banque Mondiale) Taux de bancarisation inf rieur à 80 % (march s d'inclusion en cours) Pr sence d'un secteur bancaire r gul et d'une banque centrale op rationnelle Proximit g ographique ou d'int gration r gionale : Afrique du Nord, Afrique subsaharienne francophone, Proche-Orient mergent Les pays retenus sont : Tunisie, Égypte, S n gal, Côte d'Ivoire, Kenya, Jordanie et, pour r f rence r gionale haute, l'Afrique du Sud. 1.2 M thodologie et sources Les donn es mobilis es proviennent des sources institutionnelles suivantes, toutes accessibles via les liens actifs de la section R f rences en fin de document : Banque Mondiale — Global Financial Development Database (GFDD/FRED) : indicateur GFDD.EI.03 (Non-Interest Income / Total Income) Bank Al-Maghrib (BAM) — Rapports annuels sur les statistiques bancaires 2023–2024 FMI — Article IV Consultation Maroc 2024 McKinsey Global Institute — « From Potential to Performance: African Banking » (mars 2026) Banque Centrale de Tunisie (BCT), BCEAO, donn es sectorielles publi es Grilles tarifaires officielles GPBM / banques marocaines (2025) STRUCTURE DES FRAIS BANCAIRES AU MAROC 2.1 Un socle de gratuit r glement e depuis 2006 Depuis l'accord de 2006 entre le Groupement Professionnel des Banques du Maroc (GPBM) et Bank Al-Maghrib, un socle minimal de services est fourni gratuitement à la clientèle : ouverture et clôture de compte, d livrance de ch quier, envoi mensuel de relev s, versements d'espèces au guichet. Cette d cision a constitu un premier levier d'inclusion, mais son p rimètre reste limit face à l' tendue r elle des charges factur es. 2.2 Grille tarifaire — Principales cat gories (2025) Cat gorie de frais Fourchette (MAD) R gime r glementaire Tenue de compte (particulier) 180 – 300 MAD/an Encadr GPBM/BAM Carte bancaire Visa Classic 120 – 180 MAD/an Tarification libre Virement hors place (agence) 15 – 40 MAD/op r. Non plafonn Virement via digital Gratuit – 10 MAD Encourag (SNIF) Opposition sur chèque 150 – 200 MAD Non plafonn Attestation / Certificat bancaire 50 – 100 MAD Non plafonn Commission de change (devises) 1 – 3 % du montant Encadr BAM Commission paiement lectronique 0,65 % transaction Plafonn BAM 2024 Retrait interbancaire (autre r seau) 5 – 15 MAD/op r. Encadr CMI → ouvert 2025 Frais de rejet (chèque sans provision) 200 – 400 MAD Barème l gal Ouverture de compte Gratuit Accord GPBM 2006 Clôture de compte Gratuit Accord GPBM 2006 Source : Grilles tarifaires GPBM, Attijariwafa Bank, Banque Populaire, CIH, BMCE — 2025. 2.3 Évolution de la part NIR/Total revenus (World Bank GFDD.EI.03) Ann e 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 NIR / Total revenus 38,4 % 36,9 % 39,9 % 38,4 % 40,3 % Source : World Bank Global Financial Development Database — FRED Series DDEI03MAA156NWDB. ◆ Lecture analytique : Une part NIR de 40 % signifie que, pour 100 MAD de revenu bancaire total, 40 MAD proviennent de frais, commissions et activit s hors cr dit. Ce ratio — stable et lev — traduit une d pendance structurelle au modèle de facturation de services, ind pendamment du cycle de taux directeurs. III. ANALYSE COMPARATIVE RÉGIONALE Le tableau ci-dessous consolide les indicateurs disponibles pour les huit march s de comparaison retenus. Les donn es NIR proviennent de la Banque Mondiale (GFDD.EI.03) ; les taux de bancarisation croisent les donn es BAM, FMI et Banque Mondiale 2024. Pays NIR / Total Bancarisation 2024 Frais transferts R gulation frais Maroc 40,3 % (2021) 58 % ~3–4 % (r form BAM) Mod r — socle GPBM 2006 + BAM actif Tunisie ~42–45 % (est.) ~45 % ~8 % ( lev ) Faible — peu contraignant Égypte En hausse ~37 % 5–7 % En renforcement post-2022 S n gal 35,7–42,5 % ~54 % (UEMOA) 3–5 % (BCEAO) Mod r — BCEAO harmonis Côte d'Ivoire ~48–55 % (est.) ~41 % 3–5 % (BCEAO) Mod r — même cadre BCEAO Kenya ~38–42 % ~79 % ~4–6 % Fort — CBK très actif Jordanie ~35–38 % ~43 % 4–6 % Mod r — CBJ encadre Afrique du Sud 40,9 % (2021) >80 % N/A (march mature) Fort — SARB + NCA Sources : World Bank GFDD/FRED, McKinsey African Banking 2026, BAM, BCT, BCEAO, CBK, estimations M3T Consulting. 3.1 Le Maroc en position interm diaire Avec 40,3 % de NIR sur total revenus, le Maroc se positionne dans le tier sup rieur de la r gion, au même niveau que l'Afrique du Sud (40,9 %), mais en dessous des march s UEMOA (Côte d'Ivoire, S n gal historique) où la part NIR peut atteindre 55 %. Par rapport à la Tunisie, le Maroc pr sente une meilleure r gulation des frais sur transferts — r sultat direct de l'action volontariste de Bank Al-Maghrib, qui a divis par deux ces frais, là où la Tunisie maintient un taux de 8 % d favorable aux expatri s. 3.2 Le modèle kenyan : r f rence en matière d'inclusion Le Kenya affiche un taux de bancarisation de ~79 % avec une part NIR similaire au Maroc (~38–42 %). Ce paradoxe apparent s'explique par la strat gie proactive de la Central Bank of Kenya (CBK) : l'exon ration temporaire des frais M-Pesa pendant la pand mie (2020–2021) a acc l r l'adoption digitale massive. La leçon : la r duction cibl e de frais sur un vecteur d'accès privil gi (mobile) peut produire un effet de bascule sur la bancarisation, ind pendamment du niveau global de NIR. 3.3 La zone UEMOA : niveau NIR lev , bancarisation faible La Côte d'Ivoire et le S n gal affichent historiquement les parts NIR les plus lev es de l' chantillon, dans des march s où la bancarisation reste inf rieure à 55 %. Ce constat illustre l'effet de segmentation : les frais lev s concentrent les revenus sur une clientèle captive (salari s du secteur formel, entreprises) tout en excluant les m nages à revenus irr guliers. IMPACT DES FRAIS SUR LE TAUX DE BANCARISATION 4.1 Les donn es macroscopiques (BAM 2024) Le taux de bancarisation au Maroc s' tablit à 58 % à fin 2024, contre 53 % stable de 2020 à 2022 — un plafonnement structurel sur trois ans malgr la dynamique d mographique. Cette stagnation est partiellement corr l e à la persistance de frais qui rigent un seuil d'entr e conomique pour les m nages à faible revenu. Taux de bancarisation 2024 Primo-bancaris s 2024 Comptes bancaires (total) 58 % (+4 pts vs 2023) 883 579 personnes 38,2 millions (+5,2 %) Hommes : 70 % | Femmes : 46 % 55 % hommes | 45 % femmes Recul ouvertures : -6,1 % Source : Bank Al-Maghrib — Statistiques bancaires 2024. ⚠ Signal d'alerte : le recul de -6,1 % du nombre total de comptes ouverts en 2024, malgr la hausse du nombre de primo-bancaris s, traduit une rationalisation des comptes multiples. Les Marocains ferment des comptes secondaires pour r duire leurs charges de tenue de compte — preuve directe de l'impact des frais sur les comportements bancaires. 4.2 Cartographie des obstacles li s aux frais Obstacle identifi M canisme d'impact Intensit (Maroc) Frais de tenue de compte Coût fixe mensuel dissuasif pour faibles revenus ●●●○○ Mod r e Frais de carte bancaire Repr sente 10–15 % du SMIG mensuel pour une carte Classic ●●●●○ Élev e Frais de virement hors place P nalise les zones rurales loign es d'agences ●●●●○ Élev e Commission de change Obstacle pour les MRE / travailleurs transfrontaliers ●●○○○ Faible (r form ) Frais interbancaires (CMI) Rench rit le paiement lectronique vs. cash ●●●○○ En baisse (2025) Complexit documentaire Frais implicites (temps, d placements, justificatifs) ●●●●● Très lev e M fiance institutionnelle Frein culturel amplifi par perception de frais injustifi s ●●●●○ Élev e Lecture : ●●●●● = obstacle très lev ; ○○○○○ = obstacle n gligeable. 4.3 Effets diff renci s par segment de population L'impact des frais sur la bancarisation n'est pas uniforme. Quatre segments sont particulièrement expos s : Segment Sp cificit de l'impact Indicateur de r f rence Femmes Frais de carte et tenue de compte repr sentent une part plus importante du revenu disponible (revenus moyens inf rieurs, emploi informel pr pond rant) Bancarisation femmes : 46 % vs 70 % hommes (2024) Zones rurales Frais de d placement implicites (accès agence) + frais de virement lev s. Le cash reste le mode dominant par d faut conomique. < 1 agence pour 10 000 habitants en zone rurale (BAM 2023) Jeunes 18–25 ans Primo-entrants sans revenus stables : coût annuel carte + tenue de compte (~400–500 MAD/an) constitue un frein à l'entr e 55 % des primo-bancaris s 2024 ont moins de 25 ans MRE / diaspora Frais de transferts impactent volume d'envois et recours aux canaux formels vs. informels R forme BAM : effet positif mesurable sur part du canal bancaire RÉFORMES EN COURS ET LEVIERS STRATÉGIQUES Consciente de ces freins, Bank Al-Maghrib a engag depuis 2019 une s rie de r formes cibl es dont l'efficacit commence à produire des effets mesurables. Elles s'articulent autour de quatre axes : 5.1 Strat gie Nationale d'Inclusion Financière — SNIF 2019–2027 La SNIF Phase 1 (2019–2023) a permis le renforcement du cadre l gal (loi sur les tablissements de paiement), le d veloppement des comptes de paiement simplifi s, et l' ducation financière. La Phase 2 (2024–2027) met explicitement l'accent sur la r duction des frais de transaction comme levier d'inclusion. Objectif d clar : atteindre 75 % de bancarisation à horizon 2027 Levier cl : comptes de paiement à coût minimal pour les populations à faible revenu Éducation financière : programme SNIF int grant la transparence des frais 5.2 Ouverture du march des paiements (2025) Fin 2024, le Conseil de la Concurrence a mis fin au quasi-monopole du Centre Mon tique Interbancaire (CMI), ouvrant le march marocain des paiements lectroniques à la concurrence effective dès le 1er mai 2025. BAM a parallèlement plafonn la commission interbancaire à 0,65 % de la valeur de la transaction. 5.3 Digital Morocco 2030 Le plan Digital Morocco 2030 (lanc septembre 2024) vise à faire du paiement mobile un pilier de la transformation num rique nationale. La digitalisation des paiements de l'État (protection sociale, allocations) r duit structurellement la d pendance au cash et cr e un point d'entr e bancaire pour des m nages auparavant exclus. 5.4 Benchmarks de bonnes pratiques r gionales Pays Mesure R sultat / Impact Kenya Exon ration temporaire frais M-Pesa (2020–2021, CBK) + compte M-Shwari à frais nuls Passage de ~50 % à ~79 % de bancarisation en 5 ans Rwanda Compte bancaire de base gratuit impos par la BNR à toutes les banques commerciales Bancarisation +30 pts en 7 ans (20 % → 50 %+) UEMOA Harmonisation BCEAO des plafonds de commissions sur transferts et mon tique Mobile money : 35–50 % des adultes en zone UEMOA Égypte Compte national (Meeza card) à frais minimaux — programme BCÉ 2022+ + 8 millions de nouveaux comptes en 2 ans RECOMMANDATIONS STRATÉGIQUES Sur la base de l'analyse comparative et des benchmarks identifi s, M3T Consulting formule les recommandations suivantes, articul es selon les trois niveaux d'action (r gulateur, secteur bancaire, État) : A — Niveau r gulateur (Bank Al-Maghrib / GPBM) Étendre le p rimètre des services gratuits : inclure les virements digitaux intrabanque et le relev lectronique dans le socle GPBM obligatoire Instaurer un Compte de Base Inclusif (CBI) : compte à tenue gratuite, carte de paiement à tarif social (< 60 MAD/an), virement lectronique inclus — à l'image du modèle rwandais Renforcer la transparence tarifaire : publication comparative trimestrielle BAM accessible en ligne et en agence Acc l rer la supervision des frais interbancaires post-CMI : suivi ex-post des effets de l'ouverture 2025 sur les tarifs r percut s aux consommateurs B — Niveau secteur bancaire ( tablissements) D velopper des offres segment es à tarification sociale : formules jeunes (< 25 ans) et femmes sans emploi avec tenue de compte gratuite pendant 24 mois Digitaliser la facturation : migration des op rations courantes vers le digital sans frais additionnels D ployer les agents bancaires en zones rurales : modèle d'agent banking r duisant les frais implicites de d placement Former les quipes front-office à l'explication des frais : r duire la m fiance par la transparence relationnelle C — Niveau État / politique publique Acc l rer la digitalisation des paiements sociaux (AMO, allocations, indemnit s) : cr e un ancrage bancaire obligatoire pour des millions de m nages non-bancaris s Conditionner l'accès aux march s publics et aux subventions à la domiciliation bancaire des TPE Inclure les frais bancaires dans l' ducation financière nationale : programmes ciblant les femmes rurales, les jeunes et les TPE VII. CONCLUSION Le Maroc occupe une position interm diaire dans le paysage bancaire r gional : ses frais hors int rêts sont significatifs (NIR ~40 % du total revenus) mais mieux r gul s que la Tunisie sur les transferts, comparables à l'Afrique du Sud sur la structure globale, et moins lev s que les march s UEMOA sur les commissions de services. Les frais bancaires constituent un frein r el et document à la bancarisation des segments vuln rables — femmes, zones rurales, jeunes sans revenus stables — et leur r duction cibl e repr sente l'un des leviers les plus directs disponibles pour franchir le seuil symbolique de 75 % fix par la SNIF. Les exp riences du Kenya, du Rwanda et de l'Égypte d montrent qu'un compte de base à coût minimal ou nul peut produire des effets d'inclusion massifs en quelques ann es. L'enjeu pour les banques marocaines est de r concilier deux imp ratifs : la rentabilit des revenus non-int rêts (indispensable à la solidit du secteur) et l'accessibilit tarifaire (n cessaire à l'approfondissement du march domestique). Ces deux objectifs ne sont pas contradictoires : un march bancaris à 75 % g nère structurellement plus de revenus qu'un march bloqu à 58 %. ◆ Conclusion analytique M3T : La r duction des frais bancaires hors int rêts n'est pas un sacrifice de rentabilit — c'est un investissement dans le march adressable. Les banques marocaines qui d velopperont les offres inclusives les plus comp titives captureront en premier les 11 millions d'adultes marocains encore non-bancaris s. C'est la logique du « profit through inclusion » qui transforme l'objectif r glementaire en opportunit strat gique. ANNEXE A — GLOSSAIRE DES TERMES TECHNIQUES Les termes ci-dessous sont d finis dans leur acception sp cifique au contexte de cette analyse. Ils sont list s par ordre alphab tique pour une consultation ais e. Terme D finition complète Bancarisation Taux de la population adulte disposant d'au moins un compte bancaire actif dans un tablissement de cr dit agr . Au Maroc, mesur et publi annuellement par Bank Al-Maghrib sur la base des donn es de la Centrale des comptes bancaires. Ne comprend pas les comptes de paiement mobile non rattach s à une banque. BCEAO (Banque Centrale des États de l'Afrique de l'Ouest) Institut d' mission commun des huit États membres de l'UEMOA (B nin, Burkina Faso, Côte d'Ivoire, Guin e-Bissau, Mali, Niger, S n gal, Togo). R gule et supervise les banques et tablissements financiers de la zone franc CFA, et harmonise la politique tarifaire sur les op rations bancaires transfrontalières. CMI (Centre Mon tique Interbancaire) Op rateur technique qui assurait jusqu'au 1er mai 2025 le quasi-monopole du traitement des paiements lectroniques interbancaires au Maroc (TPE, DAB, paiements en ligne). Sa position dominante a t remise en cause par le Conseil de la Concurrence fin 2024, ouvrant le march à de nouveaux entrants et à une comp tition sur les commissions d'interchange. Commission d'interchange Frais perçus par la banque mettrice de la carte bancaire auprès de la banque acqu reuse (celle du commerçant) lors de chaque transaction. Au Maroc, BAM a plafonn cette commission à 0,65 % de la valeur de la transaction en 2024, interdisant par ailleurs sa refacturation directe au consommateur final. FRED (Federal Reserve Economic Data) Base de donn es conomiques publique g r e par la Banque de R serve F d rale de St. Louis, qui h berge et diffuse l'ensemble des s ries statistiques du Global Financial Development Database (GFDD) de la Banque Mondiale. L'indicateur utilis dans cette analyse — GFDD.EI.03 — est accessible via les s ries DDEI03MAA156NWDB (Maroc) et quivalents pays. GFDD (Global Financial Development Database) Base de donn es produite par la Banque Mondiale mesurant le d veloppement financier de ~200 pays sur 4 dimensions : profondeur, accès, efficience et stabilit . L'indicateur GFDD.EI.03 mesure la part des revenus non-int rêts dans le total des revenus bancaires (NII + NIR), calcul à partir des donn es Bankscope sur donn es non consolid es. GPBM (Groupement Professionnel des Banques du Maroc) Organisation professionnelle f d rant l'ensemble des banques marocaines agr es. Interlocuteur de Bank Al-Maghrib pour la n gociation des conventions tarifaires, notamment l'accord de 2006 instituant la gratuit des services bancaires de base (ouverture de compte, ch quier, relev mensuel, versements d'espèces). Inclusion financière Accès de l'ensemble de la population — y compris les segments vuln rables (femmes, populations rurales, jeunes, TPE) — à des services financiers formels utiles et abordables : comptes de transaction, pargne, cr dit, paiement et assurance. Mesur e par la Banque Mondiale via l'indice Global Findex (enquête triennale). MRE (Marocains R sidant à l'Étranger) Diaspora marocaine tablie hors du Maroc, constituant un segment strat gique pour les banques marocaines (comptes devises, transferts de fonds). Les transferts MRE repr sentent environ 9–10 % du PIB marocain. La r forme des frais de transferts impuls e par BAM a directement b n fici à ce segment, r duisant le coût de rapatriement des fonds. NII (Net Interest Income) Revenu net d'int rêts : diff rentiel entre les produits g n r s par les cr dits accord s (int rêts perçus) et les charges pay es sur les d pôts collect s (int rêts vers s). Principal pilier de revenu des banques de d tail dans les march s mergents, compl mentaire au NIR. NIR (Non-Interest Revenue) Revenus bancaires hors int rêts, galement appel s revenus de commissions ou frais de services. Comprennent : commissions sur op rations (virements, chèques, cartes), frais de tenue de compte, revenus de change, gains sur trading et d riv s, produits sur services d'assurance et de banque de financement. Objet central de cette analyse. SNIF (Strat gie Nationale d'Inclusion Financière) Programme strat gique lanc en 2019 conjointement par Bank Al-Maghrib et le gouvernement marocain, structur en deux phases : Phase 1 (2019–2023) ax e sur le cadre l gal et les produits inclusifs ; Phase 2 (2024–2027) centr e sur la r duction des frais de transaction, l'infrastructure num rique et l' ducation financière. Objectif : porter le taux de bancarisation à 75 % d'ici 2027. TPE / TPME Très Petite Entreprise (TPE) et Très Petite et Moyenne Entreprise (TPME) : segment entrepreneurial prioritaire de la SNIF en matière d'accès au financement bancaire. Au Maroc, environ 88 % des PME restent sous-bancaris es selon les estimations sectorielles. Le programme Intelaka (6,8 Mds MAD distribu s en 2023) constitue le principal levier public de bancarisation de ce segment. UEMOA (Union Économique et Mon taire Ouest-Africaine) Zone d'int gration conomique et mon taire regroupant 8 pays d'Afrique de l'Ouest partageant le franc CFA BCEAO. Dispose d'un cadre r glementaire bancaire harmonis g r par la BCEAO, incluant des plafonds de commissions interbancaires et des règles de protection des consommateurs de services financiers. ANNEXE B — RÉFÉRENCES ET SOURCES AVEC LIENS ACTIFS RÉGULATEURS & BANQUES CENTRALES [1] Bank Al-Maghrib — Statistiques bancaires & comptes 2024 Donn es officielles sur le taux de bancarisation, nombre de comptes, primo-bancaris s 2024. [2] Bank Al-Maghrib — Rapports sur les infrastructures des march s financiers et moyens de paiement 2024 Strat gie nationale des paiements, cadre r glementaire CMI et paiements lectroniques. [3] Bank Al-Maghrib — Documents de travail de recherche 2024 Études conom triques sur les chocs de cr dit et la financiarisation de l' conomie marocaine. [4] Banque Centrale de Tunisie (BCT) — Tableau comparatif des frais bancaires Observatoire de l'Inclusion Financière de la BCT : comparatif tarifaire des banques tunisiennes. BANQUE MONDIALE & INSTITUTIONS MULTILATÉRALES [5] World Bank FRED — NIR/Total Income Maroc (DDEI03MAA156NWDB) S rie temporelle complète de l'indicateur GFDD.EI.03 pour le Maroc (2010–2021). [6] World Bank FRED — NIR/Total Income S n gal (DDEI03SNA156NWDB) Même indicateur pour le S n gal — base de comparaison UEMOA (2010–2020). [7] World Bank FRED — NIR/Total Income Afrique du Sud (DDEI03ZAA156NWDB) R f rence march mature africain (40,9 % en 2021). [8] FMI — Article IV Consultation Maroc 2024 (Staff Country Report 2024/099) Analyse macro conomique et bancaire, transmission des taux, croissance du cr dit 2023–2024. ÉTUDES & ANALYSES SECTORIELLES [9] McKinsey Global Institute — From Potential to Performance: A Snapshot of African Banking (mars 2026) Analyse des 5 march s leaders africains dont le Maroc. ROE, NIR vs NII, croissance 2024–2025. [10] MDPI Journal of Risk & Financial Management — Non-Interest Income in MENA Region Banks (mars 2024) Étude acad mique sur l'impact des revenus non-int rêts sur la rentabilit des banques MENA (40 banques, 2010–2022). [11] African Business — Africa's Top 100 Banks 2025 Classement et analyse des grandes banques africaines dont Attijariwafa Bank (3ème, Tier 1 capital 6,2 Mds $). PRESSE ÉCONOMIQUE & DONNÉES MAROC [12] M dias 24 — Taux de bancarisation 58 % au Maroc en 2024 (juillet 2025) Analyse d taill e de l' volution m thodologique et des donn es BAM 2024. [13] Le360 — Mobile et inclusion financière au Maroc (octobre 2025) SNIF, Digital Morocco 2030, fin du monopole CMI et enjeux de l'inclusion par le mobile. [14] LesEco.ma — Bancarisation : des progrès certains, mais des d fis persistants (juillet 2024) Analyse des freins structurels à la bancarisation dont l'impact des frais sur les populations vuln rables. [15] LesEco.ma — Bancarisation : l'objectif des 75 % se pr cise (juillet 2025) Donn es 2024, rationalisation des comptes multiples, tendances comportementales. [16] FNH.ma — Strat gie nationale d'inclusion financière : bilan 5 ans (novembre 2024) Bilan de la SNIF Phase 1 et objectifs de la Phase 2 (2024–2027). [17] Le Matin — Inclusion financière : Bank Al-Maghrib acc lère ses r formes (f vrier 2026) Interview BAM sur les priorit s r glementaires : infrastructure num rique, frais, TPE. [18] Le360 — Bank Al-Maghrib acc lère sa strat gie pour r duire la d pendance au cash (d cembre 2025) Strat gie nationale des paiements BAM 2024 : commission interbancaire plafonn e à 0,65 %. [19] HAC.ma — How to Navigate Morocco's Banking and Financial System (janvier 2026) Synthèse pratique des frais bancaires marocains (change, cartes, conditions d'ouverture). [20] Babnet.tn — Baisser les frais bancaires tunisiens sur transferts à 3 % (juillet 2025) Comparaison des frais sur transferts Tunisie (~8 %) vs Maroc, S n gal, Côte d'Ivoire. © M3T Consulting 2026 — Toute reproduction partielle ou totale soumise à autorisation pr alable crite. R f rence : M3T-GRC-2026-007 v2.

BRICS, (Brazil, Russia, India, China, and South Africa), was established on June 16, 2009, with the primary objective of reducing member nations' dependence on the Western economy. Notably, BRICS collectively represents 25% of the world's total economic output, covers 26.7% of the world's surface area, comprises 41.5% of the global population, and boasts a combined GDP of $25 trillion. And now we know why people are fascinated by BRICS.Upon closer examination, it becomes evident that South Africa stands as the weakest member. Meanwhile, Brazil contends with an alarmingly high interest rate of 13.25%, and Russia remains embroiled in a protracted conflict that was initially expected to last no longer than two months but has now persisted for a year and a half, leading to a host of sanctions. In contrast, India appears to hold the most promising long-term potential within BRICS, and China's impressive, meritocratic GDP cannot be overlooked.However, skepticism lingers regarding BRICS' ability to fully meet global expectations, driven by factors extending beyond economic considerations. One pressing concern centers on the significant conflict between BRICS' heavyweight members, China and India, particularly in the heavily militarized Tibet region. Recent events, such as those in the Galwan Valley, have amplified these tensions (https://lnkd.in/epYzuYpM).Additionally, the recent inclusion of new members within BRICS, including KSA, UAE, Argentina, Egypt, Iran, and Ethiopia, raises questions. While KSA and UAE demonstrate economic strength, Argentina grapples with staggering hyperinflation at 113.40%. Egypt's economic performance, marked by high inflation and a soaring interest rate of 19.25%, is concerning, and its national currency has seen a significant depreciation from $0.10 in 2008 to just $0.032 in 2023. Meanwhile, Iran struggles under sanctions.Amidst these uncertainties, my skepticism regarding BRICS' prospects remains unwavering. I believe that the recent recruitment of new members has extinguished the last opportunity for BRICS to thrive. Photo Credits to visualcapitalist.com

Contents 1 Abstract.. 4 2 Introduction.. 4 3 Objective: 5 4 Plan of the paper: 5 5 Chapter 1: Risk History and definitions. 5 5.1 Introduction: 5 5.2 Section I: Risk Management History: 6 5.3 Section 2: Definitions of Risk Management: 7 5.3.1 Market Risk: 8 5.3.2 Credit Risk. 8 5.3.3 Liquidity Risk: 8 5.3.4 Operational Risk: 9 6 Chapter 2: Evolvement of Risk Management: Basel I, II and III. 10 6.1 Introduction: 10 6.2 Section I: Basel I and its shortcomings: 11 6.3 Section 2: Basel II 12 6.4 Section 3: Basel III 13 6.4.1 Summary OF changes. 13 7 Chapter 3: Risk in Islamic Finance Institutions. 14 7.1 Introduction: 14 7.2 Section 1: Islamic Finance Institutions are unique. 16 7.3 Section 2: Types of Risks in the IFIs: 17 8 Chapter 4: Islamic Finance Products, Risks and the key challenges. 19 8.1 Introduction: 19 8.2 Section 1: Risks in Islamic Finance Products: 19 8.2.1 Risks in Musharakah Contracts: 21 8.2.2 Risks in Mudarabah contract: 22 8.2.3 Risks in Murabahah Contract: 24 8.2.4 Risks in Salam Contract: 24 8.2.5 Risks in Istisnaa Contract 25 8.2.6 Risks in Iajrah Contract: 26 8.3 Section 2: Challenges of Risk Management in Islamic Finance Products. 27 9 Chapter 5: Operational Risk in Islamic Finance Institutions. 28 9.1 Introduction: 28 9.2 Section 1: Operational Risk in Musharakah contract: 28 9.3 Section 2: Operational Risk in Mudarabah contract. 29 9.4 Section 3: Operational Risk in Murabahah contract. 29 9.5 Operational Risk in Salam contract. 30 9.6 Operational Risk in Istisnaa contract: 30 9.7 Operational Risk in Ijarah contract: 30 10 Conclusion.. 30 10.1 Findings. 30 10.2 Recommendations. 31 11 References. 33 1 Abstract As IFIs are growing extensively and expected to grow up to 15% in the coming years, it is primordial that all the industry stakeholders start to invest their efforts to develop the Risk Management disciplines. The IFSB and AAOIFI are not sparing any effort to guide and participate in shaping the IF Risk Management, however, they tend to be inspired by the existing frameworks historically developed for Conventional Banks. Islamic Finance contracts are very different in nature and in substance from conventional banks, thus, the conventional Risk Management cannot cater for their uniqueness. This paper tried to highlight uniqueness of risk aspects within the IF contracts, and focused on Operational Risk, which is in my opinion in the major risk for IFI. 2 Introduction Risk Management have evolved since its first appearance after the World War II. The Bank of International Settlement have tried to adapt to the changes in the Finance industry and issued 3 version of the Basel Guidelines on Capital Requirements (Basel I, II and III). These guidelines have identified Capital Requirements for Credit Risk, Market Risk and Operational Risk. They also issued Sound Practices for Risk Management for each type of Risk. With the venue of the Islamic Finance Industry in the 1960s, Risk Management tools had to adapt to the uniqueness of their products. IFSB and AOIIFI have invested huge efforts in developing Risk Management guidelines for IFIs. Scholars and Islamic Finance practitioners issued multitude of papers attempting to circle aspects of Risk in the Islamic Finance Contracts. They have demonstrated that Islamic Finance encompasses other types of Risk that are unknown to conventional Banks (Fiduciary Risk, Sharia non-compliance Risk, Commercial Displaced Risk, etc.) Many of those scholars have also found out that the IFIs are more exposed to Operational Risk than the conventional banks, mainly due to the complexity of the contracts and their execution. This research is an attempt to add some more light on Risks faced by Islamic Finance Institution with a special focus on Operational Risk. 3 Objective: Risk Management in IFIs tends to be complex and least understood by the business and even by the Risk Management practitioners, in this research I will attempt to define Risks in IFIs and clarify its specifications by demonstrating its uniqueness, especially in the Islamic Finance contracts, where each contract can encompass more than one type of Risk. I will also try to cover some more details of Operational Risk aspects in the IF contracts and demonstrate its importance and complexity during the lifecycle. That being discussed I will propose some actions that can enhance the Operational Risk Management within the IFIs. 4 Plan of the paper: In this paper, I will be defining Risk Management in general in Financial Institutions and its degree of evolvement especially in conventional banking, how Risk is different in Islamic Financial Institutions from conventional banks, their instruments and what are the key challenges. Then I will be discussing the Operational Risk Management in Islamic Finance Institutions and its specifications. 5 Chapter 1: Risk History and definitions 5.1 Introduction: Risk Management emerged after the World War II, and began to be studied in universities as a discipline with the two academic books ( Mehr and Hedges (1963) and Williams and Hems (1964)[1]. Risk Management was, for a long time, the ultimate tool for Insurance Industry aiming to mitigate Risks related to individuals and companies from losses incurred from accidents[2] After 1950s, and due to the increasing costs of insurance, various Risk Management activities were introduced to the business (e.g. business continuity, self-insurance). Derivatives were introduced after 1970s to mitigate the faced risks. Market, Credit, and Operational Risk Management tools were introduced to manage the emerging risks from the intensified activities with insurance and Finance industries (consequently after 1980s for Market and Credit and 1990s for Operational Risk)[3] The objective of a financial institution (or for any kind of business) is to maximize shareholders’ profits by adding value and best usage of available resources. Financial institutions, in particular, have to manage Risks to achieve the aforesaid objective. Risk is defined as a possible adverse, one or more, outcomes, it is unknown for its intrinsic volatility and unpredictability. Financial institutions face different types of Risks. Business Risks, which “arises from the nature of a firm’s business. It relates to factors affecting the product market. Financial risk arises from possible losses in financial markets due to movements in financial variables [4]”. Oldfield and Santomero classifies Risk in three types: risks that can be eliminated, those that can be transferred to others, and the risks that can be managed by the institution. [5]” Besides the above given definitions, Risk can also be defined as Financial Risk, i.e. Credit Risk and Market Risk, and non-Financial Risk, i.e., among others, Operational Risk, Legal Risk, Reputational Risk and Strategic Risk.[6] 5.2 Section I: Risk Management History: Risk Management historically was the main objective of the insurance industry. After the World War II, large companies started to mitigate their risks by introducing Self-Insurance techniques. It was largely applied to cover adverse financial impacts consequent of events of losses or Market volatility. After 1970s, Financial Risk Management emerges as a cornerstone for multitude of companies including banks. In Fact, Stock Market prices, exchange rates, commodity prices, were their main concerns. Table 1: Milestones in the History of Risk Management[7] In 1990s Risk Management took more momentum and became a high priority matter for corporates, Board of Director have now the responsibility of oversight and monitoring policies effected by the Board Audit and Risk Management Committees. Financial Institution, after 2000s are required to implement capital reserves for risks, especially after the major defaults and the Enron bankruptcy case. Basel II (2004) issued guidelines on more robust capital requirements on banks for Credit Risk, also introduced rules on managing Operational Risk. In 2010 Basel III came as a response to the 2008 subprime crisis, with more constraints on capital requirements and new Liquidity Risk Management guidelines. 5.3 Section 2: Definitions of Risk Management: According to Wikipedia, “Risk management is the identification, assessment, and prioritization of risks (defined in ISO 31000 as the effect of uncertainty on objectives) followed by coordinated and economical application of resources to minimize, monitor, and control the probability and/or impact of unfortunate events[8] or to maximize the realization of opportunities. Risk management’s objective is to assure uncertainty does not deflect the endeavor from the business goals.[9]” Financial Institutions face generally two types of Risk, Financial and Non-Financial[10] (Gleason 2000). Financial Risks are those due Market volatility (Market Risk), and those due customers’ defaults (Credit Risk). Non-Financial Risk includes, but not limited to, Operational Risk, Legal Risk, Reputational Risk, Regulatory Compliance Risk. 5.3.1 Market Risk: Market Risk is defined as the risk from adverse volatility of traded instruments and assets in a well-defined Market[11]. Market Risk can affect both banking and trading books. In the sense that it is originated from equity price risk, interest rate risk, currency risk, and commodity price risk. Market Risk is said systematic when it arises due to the general volatility of prices and overall changes in policies in the economy. When the price of a specific asset or instruments changes due to events inherent to it, it is categorized as unsystematic Risk. 5.3.2 Credit Risk “Credit risk is most simply defined as the potential that a bank borrower or counterparty will fail to meet its obligations in accordance with agreed terms. The goal of credit risk management is to maximize a bank's risk-adjusted rate of return by maintaining credit risk exposure within acceptable parameters. Banks need to manage the credit risk inherent in the entire portfolio as well as the risk in individual credits or transactions. Banks should also consider the relationships between credit risk and other risks. The effective management of credit risk is a critical component of a comprehensive approach to risk management and essential to the long-term success of any banking organization.”[12] Credit Risk is the risk that counterparty will fail to meet its obligations timely and fully in accordance with the agreed terms[13]. 5.3.3 Liquidity Risk: The Principles for Sound Liquidity Risk Management and Supervision[14] (BCBS 2008) defines Liquidity as “the ability of a bank to fund increases in assets and meet obligations as they come due, without incurring unacceptable losses.” Liquidity Risk arises then from adverse circumstances that hurdles a bank to normally operate and meet its liabilities when due. Funding Liquidity Risk occurs when banks are unable to secure funds at a reasonable cost from borrowing, Asset Liquidity Risk arises when banks face difficulties to generate liquidity from sale of assets.[15] 5.3.4 Operational Risk: The BCBS Principles for the Sound Management of Operational Risk defines Operational Risk as the risk of loss resulting from inadequate or failed internal processes, people and systems or from external events. This definition includes legal risk, but excludes strategic and reputational risk.[16] Operational Risk was for a long time out of the radar of the corporates and scholars, it was not quite understood. Power writes: “Operational risk was conceived as a composite term for a wide variety of organizational and behavioural risk issues which were traditionally excluded from formal definitions of market and credit risk. The explosion of operational risk discourse gave new structure and rationality to what had traditionally been regarded as a risk management residual and negatively described as non-financial risk.”[17] The Bank of international Settlements (BIS) have categorized Operational Risk into four causal categories[18]: · Process · Business Process (lack of proper due diligence, inadequate/problematic account reconciliation, etc.) · Business Risks (merger risk, new product risk, etc.) · Errors and Omissions (inadequate/problematic security, inadequate/problematic quality control, etc.) · Specific Liabilities (employee benefits, employer, directors and officers, etc.) · People · Employee Errors (general transaction errors, incorrect routing of transaction, etc.) · Human Resource Issues (employee unavailability, hiring/firing, etc.) · Personal Injury – Physical Injury (bodily injury, health and safety, etc.) Personal Injury – Non–Physical Injury (libel/defamation/slander, discrimination/harassment, etc.) · Wrongful Acts (fraud, trading misdeeds, etc.) · Information Technology · General Technology Problems (operational error – technology related, unauthorized use/misuse of technology, etc.) · Hardware (equipment failure, inadequate/unavailable hardware, etc.) · Security (hacking, firewall failure, external disruption, etc.) · Software (computer virus, programming bug, etc.) · Systems (system failures, system maintenance, etc.) · Telecommunications (telephone, fax, etc.) · External Events · Disasters (natural disasters, non–natural disasters, etc.) · External Misdeeds (external fraud, external money laundering, etc.) · Litigation/Regulation (capital control, regulatory change, legal change, etc.) · Relationships · Legal/Contractual (securities law violations, legal liabilities, etc.) · Negligence (gross negligence, general negligence, etc.) · Sales Discrimination (lending discrimination, client Discrimination, etc.) · Sales Related Issues (churning, sales misrepresentation, high pressure sales tactics, etc.) · Specific Omissions (failure to pay proper fees, failure to file proper report, etc.) Gene Alvares attempted a mapping exercise between the Causal Categories and Basel Risk Types (Alvares, Global Association of Risk Professionals GARP studies. 2002). Mapping illustration between the Basel Committee’s proposed operational risk event classification scheme and Zurich IC2 format. (Alvarez, 2002)[19] References Georges Dionne, Risk Management: History and Critique, March 2013 Harrington and Neihaus, 2013, Georges Dionne, Risk Management: History and Critique, March 2013 Jorion and Khoury 1996, reference cited by Tariqullah Khan Habib Ahmed: Risk Management: An Analysis Of Issues In Islamic Financial Industry, 2001, Islamic Development Bank, Islamic Research and Training Institute Oldfield and Santomero (1997), reference cited by Tariqullah Khan Habib Ahmed: Risk Management: An Analysis Of Issues In Islamic Financial Industry, 2001, , Islamic Development Bank, Islamic Research and Training Institute Tariqullah Khan Habib Ahmed: Risk Management: An Analysis Of Issues In Islamic Financial Industry, 2001, Islamic Development Bank, Islamic Research and Training Institute Hubbard, Douglas (2009). The Failure of Risk Management: Why It's Broken and How to Fix It. John Wiley & Sons. (Wikipedia) Antunes, Ricardo; Gonzalez, Vicente (3 March 2015). "A Production Model for Construction: A Theoretical Framework". Buildings. 5 (1): 209–228. doi:10.3390/buildings5010209. (Wikipedia) BCBS - Principles for the Management of Credit Risk - final document, September 2000 BCBS - Principles for Sound Liquidity Risk Management and Supervision - final document, September 2008 BCBS Principles for the Sound Management of Operational Risk, 2011 Power p. 103 Cited by Johannes Gaus aus Böblingen, The Risks of Financial Risk Management, Master-Thesis, Economics of Financial Institutions European Business School, Department Corporate Management & Economics, Zeppelin University Marinoiu Ana Maria, Bucharest University of Economics, Faculty of International Business and Economics, Operational Risk In International Business: Taxonomy And Assessment Methods, Federal Reserve Bulletin, September 2003, Capital Standards for Banks: The Evolving Basel Accord BCBS, Basel II: The New Basel Capital Accord - third consultative paper April 2003 and Revised international capital framework, June 2006 Basel III: international regulatory framework for banks Sean Kenny, To What Extent were the Limitations of the Previous Basel Accords (I & II) overlooked by Basel III?, Master programme in Economic History, Lund University, School of Economics and Management, June 2011 BCBS- Pillar 2 (Supervisory Review Process), the New Basel Capital Accord, Principal 2 Basel II, Tamer Bakiciol Nicolas Cojocaru-Durand DongxuLu, December 2008 BIS, BCSB, Basel III: international regulatory framework for banks Basel Committee on Banking Supervision, Basel III: International Framework for Liquidity Risk Measurement, Standards and Monitoring, Dec 10, Bank for International Settlements. http://wwww.basel-ii-risk.com/basel-iii-guide-to-the-changes/ Ahmad Alharbi, Development of the Islamic Banking System, Journal of Islamic Banking and Finance June 2015, Vol. 3, No. 1 Syed Ehsan Ullah Agha, RISK MANAGEMENT IN ISLAMIC FINANCE: AN ANALYSIS FROM OBJECTIVES OF SHARI’AH PERSPECTIVE, International Journal of Business, Economics and Law, Vol. 7, Issue 3 (Aug.) 2015 Specifics of Risk Management in Islamic Finance and Banking, with Emphasis on Bosnia and Herzegovina, E.Kozarević, M.Baraković Nurikić & N.Nuhanović, Bahar/Spring 2014, Volume 4, Issue 1, Çankırı Karatekin University, Journal of The Faculty of Economics, and Administrative Sciences. Ioannis Akkizidis and Sunil Kumar Khandelwal, Financial Risk Management for Islamic Banking and Finance, Palgrave Macmillan. Standing Committee for Economic and Commercial Cooperation of the Organization of Islamic Cooperation (COMCEC), Risk Management in Islamic Financial Instruments, COMCEC Coordination Office, September 2014. ISLAMIC FINANCIAL SERVICES BOARD, GUIDING PRINCIPLES OF RISK MANAGEMENT FOR INSTITUTIONS (OTHER THAN INSURANCE INSTITUTIONS) OFFERING ONLY ISLAMIC FINANCIAL SERVICES, December 2005. Nurhafiza Abdul Kader Malim PhD, Islamic Banking and Risk Management: Issues and Challenges, Journal of Islamic Banking and Finance Oct.- Dec. 2015. Hennie van Greuning Zamir Iqbal, Risk Analysis for Islamic Banks, THE WORLD BANK Washington, D.C., December 2008. Ahmad Mohamed Rahim, Operational Risks in Islamic Profit Sharing Contracts and Ways to Overcome Them, MSc in Islamic Finance, The Global University of Islamic Finance, October 2014 (http://www.inceif.org/research-bulletin/operational-risks-islamic-profit-sharing-contracts-ways-overcome/) [1] Georges Dionne, Risk Management: History and Critique, March 2013, p. 1 [2] Harrington and Neihaus, 2013, Georges Dionne, Risk Management: History and Critique, March 2013, p. 1 [3] Georges Dionne, Risk Management: History and Critique, March 2013, p. 1 [4] Jorion and Khoury 1996, p. 2, reference cited by Tariqullah Khan Habib Ahmed: Risk Management: An Analysis Of Issues In Islamic Financial Industry, 2001,p. 26, Islamic Development Bank, Islamic Research and Training Institute [5] Oldfield and Santomero (1997), reference cited by Tariqullah Khan Habib Ahmed: Risk Management: An Analysis Of Issues In Islamic Financial Industry, 2001,p. 27, Islamic Development Bank, Islamic Research and Training Institute [6] Tariqullah Khan Habib Ahmed: Risk Management: An Analysis Of Issues In Islamic Financial Industry, 2001,p. 28, Islamic Development Bank, Islamic Research and Training Institute [7] Georges Dionne, Risk Management: History and Critique, March 2013, p. 6 [8] Hubbard, Douglas (2009). The Failure of Risk Management: Why It's Broken and How to Fix It. John Wiley & Sons. p. 46. (Wikipedia) [9] Antunes, Ricardo; Gonzalez, Vicente (3 March 2015). "A Production Model for Construction: A Theoretical Framework". Buildings. 5 (1): 209–228. doi:10.3390/buildings5010209. (Wikipedia) [10] Tariqullah Khan Habib Ahmed: Risk Management: An Analysis of Issues in Islamic Financial Industry, 2001, p. 28, Islamic Development Bank, Islamic Research and Training Institute [11] Tariqullah Khan Habib Ahmed: Risk Management: An Analysis of Issues in Islamic Financial Industry, 2001, p. 28, Islamic Development Bank, Islamic Research and Training Institute [12] BCBS - Principles for the Management of Credit Risk - final document, September 2000 [13] Tariqullah Khan Habib Ahmed: Risk Management: An Analysis of Issues in Islamic Financial Industry, 2001, p. 29, Islamic Development Bank, Islamic Research and Training Institute [14] BCBS - Principles for Sound Liquidity Risk Management and Supervision - final document, September 2008 [15] Tariqullah Khan Habib Ahmed: Risk Management: An Analysis of Issues in Islamic Financial Industry, 2001, p. 29, Islamic Development Bank, Islamic Research and Training Institute [16] BCBS Principles for the Sound Management of Operational Risk, 2011, p. 3 [17] Power p. 103 Cited by Johannes Gaus aus Böblingen, The Risks of Financial Risk Management, Master-Thesis, Economics of Financial Institutions European Business School, Department Corporate Management & Economics, Zeppelin University, p. 38 [18] Marinoiu Ana Maria, Bucharest University of Economics, Faculty of International Business and Economics, Operational Risk In International Business: Taxonomy And Assessment Methods, P. 196 [19] Marinoiu Ana Maria, Bucharest University of Economics, Faculty of International Business and Economics, Operational Risk in International Business: Taxonomy and Assessment Methods, P. 197